Scientific Method and Empiricism free essay sample

Empiricism is a philosophical doctrine that our knowledge only comes from experiences. It can be described as a central role of observation. Empiricism was eventually somewhat replaced around the 1970’s by Positivism, Humanism, Marxist, Feminism and Post-Colonialism. However it still plays an important role today’s society, for example in the cataloguing of species. There is about 1.7 million species are known to science, there is an estimated range of 4 to 20 million total species. 10,000 new invertebrates are found each year. There has been over 1000 new species discovered in the Mekong region alone in the last decade. Empiricism is based on a reliance of the senses; however there is a major emphasis on visual observation in particular. The mind is conveyed as a clean tablet (slate) or ‘tabula rasa’; it should not be subjected to any predisposition. This term was coined by Aristotle, what the mind thinks must be in it in the same sense as letters are on a tablet, which bears no actual writing; in the case of the mind this is what is believed to happen. We will write a custom essay sample on Scientific Method and Empiricism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (Aristotle, On the Soul, 3.4.430a1). a blank mind with no influence of previous experiences can look at something with an open mind, how it really is, instead of how that person wants to see it. John Locke, who was a leading philosopher of British Empiricism, said that â€Å"there is nothing in the mind but what there is nothing in the mind but what entered it by way of the senses†. This perfectly conveys the concept of Empiricism. It is not performed for the sake of the collection for data; it is carried out with reference to theory and concepts. It is much more hands on experience than studying someone else’s hypothesis’ of a situation. The person carrying out the investigation as I have previously mentioned is not influenced by any other elements. Sauer stated that ‘geographical knowledge rests upon disciplined observation and it is a body of interferences drawn from classified and properly correlated observations†¦ we are concerned here simply with the relevance of the observations and the manner in which they are made. (1924:19) recc reading pg 11 cloke p Sidney Woolridge, a geographer also stated the necessity of observation in his writing, where he commemorates what he calls ‘an eye for country’, something which he feels that should be promoted in geographers from a young age: ‘The fundamental  principle is that the ground, not the map is the primary document†¦. From this first principle I pass to the second, that the essence of training in geographaphical fieldwork is the comprise of the ground with the map, recognising that the latter at its best is a very partial and imperfect picture of the ground, leaving it as our chief stimulus to observe the wide range of phenomena which the map ignores or at which it barely hints. (cloke pg 11/12) Empirical methods are still used to a certain extent today; Traditional information has been trusted for too long, they help integrating research and practice and because the Educational process or Instructional science needs to develop. The benefits of Empirical methods include the ability to comprehend and respond more accordingly to the ways of a situation, to give respect to relative contrasts, aid the building of knowledge and to give the chance to reach the professional level of research that has already been achieved. http://explorable.com/empirical-research The Empirical Cycle consists of the following stages: Observation- which involves gathering and organising of empirical data to for a Hypothesis. Induction- this is the way of creating a hypothesis  Deduction- these consequence with newly acquired empirical data Testing the hypothesis with new empirical data Evaluation of the outcome of testing . However Empiricism was criticized for not being very scientific and unreliable. That its methods has many limitations compared to other approaches i.e. Positivism. It is notably negligent of theory. The perception of something, which Empiricism relies on, is not universal. What one person sees as being correct can be incorrect for another. However, pure empiricism is not possible; one always enters the field of research with some preconceived ideas of what one is observing. In the absence of pure empiricism, one will alternate anything that would enable theory to emerge from data that has been acquired. Geography is concerned with spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes and features. It is highly interdisciplinary. The concept of empiricism is indeed quite different to the methods of empiricism. The idea of empiricism is indeed quite an ideal concept where one would separate all thoughts and preconceptions from their  field of study; however in reality this is not fully possible. Although empiricism no longer plays such a dominant role in geography, induction is still used to generalise from our observations. It’s not as rigid as the ‘theory will emerge from data gathered’ belief as existed before. The falseness of hypotheses remains predominant to the question of science. It also enables the ability to separate science from non-science. It is what often separates science and non-science However, issues still arise today with this concept, such as when empirical data collection begins without proper knowledge of underlying theory. It also has the tendency to over-simplify often more complex questions. Overall empiricism has played a major role in the progress of research in Geography throughout the centuries, although problems arise in different circumstances such as what I have previously mentioned, it being not theoretical enough or providing simple answers for complex questions, if it is not fully relied on, instead used in conjunction with other concepts such as Marxist, Positivism or Humanism it can prove to be very useful in the further progression of the Geography today and in the future. Bibliography:

Emma Watsons Speech on Masculinity

Emma Watson's Speech on Masculinity Emma Watson, British actor and Goodwill Ambassador for UN Women, said many smart, important, sociologically informed things during her speech on gender equality  at the UN on September 20, 2014. Surprisingly,  the most important words of Ms. Watson  did not have to do with women and girls, but rather with men and boys. She said: We don’t often talk about men being imprisoned by gender stereotypes, but I can see that they are, and that when they are free, things will change for women as a natural consequence. If men don’t have to be aggressive in order to be accepted, women won’t feel compelled to be submissive.  If men don’t have to control, women won’t have to be controlled. Ms. Watson tips her hat to a multitude of deeply important  social science research in these three short sentences. This research grows  in breadth by the day, and is seen as increasingly important by the sociological community, and by feminist activists,  in  the fight for gender equality. She doesnt use the word herself, but what Ms. Watson refers to here is masculinitythe collection of behaviors, practices, embodiments, ideas, and values that come to be associated with male bodies. Recently, but historically too, social scientists and writers from a range of disciplines are paying critical attention to the way commonly held beliefs about masculinity, and how best to do it or achieve it, result in serious, widespread, violent social problems. The  list of how masculinity and social problems  are connected is a long, diverse, and horrifying one. It includes that which specifically targets women and girls, like sexualized and gendered violence. Many sociologists, like Patricia Hill Collins, C.J. Pascoe, and Lisa Wade, have studied and proven the connection between the masculine ideals of power and control, and widespread physical and sexual violence against women and girls. Sociologists who study these troubling phenomena point out that these are not crimes of passion, but of power. They are meant to elicit submission and subservience from those targeted, even in what some would consider to be their less serious forms, like street harassment and verbal abuse. (For the record, these too  are very serious problems.) In her book, Dude, Youre a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School,  an instant classic among sociologists, C.J. Pascoe showed through over a years worth of research how boys are socialized to adopt and perform a dominant, aggressive, controlling, and sexualized version of masculinity. This kind of masculinity, the idealized norm in our society, requires that boys and men control girls and women. Their status in society, and inclusion in the category men depends upon it. Of course there are other social forces at play as well, but the powerful socializing force of this dominant notion of masculinity is a key contributor to the widespread rates of sexual assault and  violence against women and girls- and against gay, lesbian, queer, and trans people too- that plague our society. That violence, though, is not only targeted at women, girls, and folks who do not fit within the rigid frameworks of heterosexuality and gender norms. It plagues the lives of normal  men and boys too, as they fight and kill  in defense of their masculine honor. Studies have found that the everyday violence within inner-city communities results in rates of PTSD among youth that exceed those among  combat veterans. Recently, Victor Rios, Associate Professor of Sociology at University of California-Santa Barbara, who has researched and written extensively about the connection between idealized masculinity and violence, founded a Facebook page dedicated to raising awareness about this issue. (Check out Boys and Guns: Masculinity in a Culture of Mass Shootings, to learn more about sociological research on this issue.) Looking beyond  our immediate communities, sociologists  make the case that this insidious link between masculinity and violence fuels many of the wars that rage across our world, as bombs, bullets, and chemical warfare batter populations into political submission. So too, many sociologists see ideologies of idealized masculinity present in the economic, environmental, and social violence wrought by global capitalism. Of these issues, celebrated sociologist Patricia Hill Collins would argue that these forms of domination are achieved by a form of power based not just on masculinity and the power structure of patriarchy, but how these intersect and overlap with racism, classism, xenophobia, and homophobia. The ideal of masculinity hurts women economically too, by casting us  as the weaker, less valuable counterparts to men, which serves to justify the gender pay gap. It bars us  from access to higher education and jobs, by framing us  as less worthy of the time and consideration of those in positions of power. It denies us  rights to autonomy in our own healthcare decisions, and prohibits us from having parity in political representation. It casts us as sex objects who exist to give pleasure to men, at the expense of our own pleasure and fulfillment. By sexualizing our bodies, it casts  them as tempting, dangerous, in need of control, and as having asked for it when we are harassed and assaulted. While the litany of social problems that harm women and girls is both infuriating and depressing, what is encouraging is that they are discussed with more frequency and openness by the day. Seeing a problem, naming it, and raising awareness about it are crucial first steps on the road to change. This is why Ms. Watsons words about men and boys are so important. A global public figure with an enormous social media platform and vast media coverage, in her speech she illuminated the historically quiet  ways in which idealized masculinity has harmed boys and men. Importantly,  Ms. Watson tuned into the emotional and psychological consequences of this issue: I’ve seen young men suffering from mental illness, unable to ask for help for fear it would make them less of a man. In fact, in the UK, suicide is the biggest killer of men between 20 to 49, eclipsing road accidents, cancer and coronary heart disease. I’ve seen men made fragile and insecure by a distorted sense of what constitutes male success. Men don’t have the benefits of equality, either......Both men and women should feel free to be sensitive. Both men and women should feel free to be strong......I want men to take up this mantle so that their daughters, sisters, and mothers can be free from prejudice, but also so that their sons have permission to be vulnerable and human too, reclaim those parts of themselves they abandoned, and in doing so, be a more true and complete version of themselves. Brava, Ms. Watson. You simply, eloquently, and compelling illustrated why gender inequality is a problem for men and boys too, and why the fight for equality is also theirs. You named the problem, and powerfully argued why it must be addressed.  We thank you for it. Click here to learn more about the UNs HeForShe campaign for gender equality, and pledge your support to the cause.

Masculinity in Paul Laurence Dunbar's The Sport of the Gods Essay

Masculinity in Paul Laurence Dunbar's The Sport of the Gods - Essay Example Regardless of race, class or even geographic location, Dunbar presents the white men’s model of masculinity as the only embodiment of manhood. Responsibility represents an important aspect of masculinity the novel points out. This responsibility requires men to be heads of households and take care of their family. In fact, the South expects its men to be strong and hardworking in order to manage and secure their family needs. For instance, Maurice Oakley, a white man who owns a plantation, believes in this principle and urges his employees to follow his example. Married to Leslie Oakley, a docile and obedient woman who respects her southern values, Mr. Oakley fully plays his role. He especially encourages Berry Hamilton, his butler, to get married: It is then possible to see how Oakley's desire for Berry to find a wife (as he has found one) necessitates that Berry find a wife that is like his, one that embodies the role of an "appropriate" wife and has the disposition that wil l allow Berry to be the head of the household--or in this case, the house in the back of the "big house." Ultimately, Oakley wants Berry to become a black version of himself within the constraints of his own household. (Tsemo) Mr. Oakley wants his servant to marry a woman who will obey and respect him so that he can become a head of household. As the landlord, he urges his employees to follow his steps. When Berry Hamilton marries Fannie, he fulfills Mr. Oakley’s wish and becomes himself a head of household with all the responsibilities and expectations involved. Even though the two households differ because of the social status involved, both men exercise some authority over their wives. Despite their different racial and class background, their southern roots grant them power over their wives who also accept and even expect such role. Mr. Oakley and Berry not only share this privilege their gender grants them over their wives but they also share the same values. Born and ra ised in the South, they believe in the same set of principles and rules of conduct. Berry even raises his children, Joe and Kit, to respect and cherish these values as they grow up. Already a hardworking and trustworthy servant, Berry emulates his employer in his deed, actions and values (Tsemo). Despite their different social status, Berry even tries to follow Oakley’s economic principles by putting aside some money after his family expenses have been met. This economic organization allows him to live decently and save his family from need compared to other black men struggling to survive. This mild success costs him the envy and jealousy of the African American community that accuses him to imitate white people’s way of life. Even though both Oakley and Berry share the patriarchal powers they believe in, some of Oakley’s beliefs will ultimately cause Berry’s destruction. Accused of stealing money from Oakley’s cabinet, Berry is sentenced to 10 ye ars of prison. He therefore loses his head of household status as he leaves his helpless wife and children. This arrest affects his dignity, his reputation and even his manhood. The Southern Values he so much believes in fail to protect and save him and actually makes him an easy target for the accusation. Despite his 20 years of devoted and loyal service to Oakley, his race and class render him a suspect of a crime he did not commit. Convinced of his innocence, the loss of his freedom comes as a surprise.